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Estado de comércio do Equador com os EUA.
Fonte: Washington Trade Daily.
O Equador está "muito preocupado" com o impacto em sua economia se Washington acabar com seu acesso isento de impostos ao mercado dos EUA sob o programa de preferências comerciais andino, disse a embaixadora Nathalie Cely ontem (WTD, 11/2/13).
O programa apoia trabalhos no Equador e nos Estados Unidos e ajudou Quito em seus esforços para combater o narcotráfico dirigindo agricultores pobres para cultivos legítimos, o embaixador disse ontem a um painel de autoridades norte-americanas em uma audiência pública no escritório do Representante de Comércio dos EUA.
O Equador procura ter três produtos - rosas cortadas, brócolis congelados e alcachofras preservadas - adicionados à lista de bens que é permitido exportar com isenção de impostos para os Estados Unidos no âmbito do Sistema de Preferências Generalizadas. Atualmente, tem acesso isento de impostos para os produtos do programa andino, mas há dúvidas crescentes de que o Congresso continuará com o programa andino em 31 de julho. O Equador é o único país beneficiário do programa - como Colômbia e Peru mudaram-se para acordos de livre comércio com os Estados Unidos.
Quito pressionará pela renovação de seus benefícios andinos, que a Sra. Cely disse que é "o mínimo que os Estados Unidos podem fazer" para um país em desenvolvimento que tenha investido recursos consideráveis ​​na luta contra a droga. A perda de tratamento isento de impostos para os três produtos equatorianos teria consequências negativas para as empresas e os trabalhadores dos EUA, uma vez que o programa andino criou vínculos de cadeia de suprimentos entre seu país e os Estados Unidos, o embaixador disse ao painel.
Mas alguns grupos empresariais dos EUA se opõem à continuação dos benefícios andinos do Equador e / ou à expansão de seus benefícios GSP, argumentando que Quito não está cumprindo os requisitos de elegibilidade dos programas. No centro do desacordo está uma série de disputas de longa data entre a Chevron e os tribunais de lá. Os tribunais encontraram Chevron culpado de danos ambientais na região amazônica do país e impuseram duras penalidades financeiras, mas órgãos internacionais governaram o Equador.
A Sra. Cely disse que as mãos do governo estão empatadas neste momento, porque a disputa ainda está dentro do sistema judicial. O governo não pode interferir no processo judicial. A disputa ainda poderia ser resolvida satisfatoriamente para ambos os lados nos tribunais equatorianos, sugeriu ela.

Departamento de Estado dos E. U.A.
Diplomacia em Ação.
Relações dos EUA com o Equador.
Mais informações sobre o Equador estão disponíveis na página do Equador e em outras publicações do Departamento de Estado e outras fontes listadas no final deste informativo.
Os Estados Unidos estabeleceram relações diplomáticas com o Equador em 1848, após sua retirada de sua federação com a Colômbia. Os Estados Unidos e o Equador compartilham uma história de parceria e cooperação e têm interesses mútuos na luta contra o narcotráfico, a redução da pobreza, a promoção do desenvolvimento econômico do Equador, o aumento do comércio, a promoção de intercâmbios acadêmicos e a conservação ambiental e a biodiversidade. A proteção dos cidadãos americanos e dos interesses dos Estados Unidos continua a ser a principal prioridade da missão.
Embora as relações EUA-Equador tenham sido tensas às vezes na última década, mais notavelmente quando o governo equatoriano declarou a então U. S. Embaixador persona non-grata em 2011 em resposta aos supostos cabos confidenciais divulgados pelo WikiLeaks, o engajamento bilateral entre os Estados Unidos e o Equador tem aumentado constantemente nos últimos anos. O Embaixador do Equador nos Estados Unidos, Francisco Borja, chegou a Washington em abril de 2015 e o Embaixador dos EUA no Equador, Todd Chapman, chegou a Quito em janeiro de 2016, dando um novo ímpeto à cooperação bilateral ampliada.
O Equador compartilha a preocupação dos EUA com o narcotráfico e as atividades de grupos armados ilegais. O governo manteve o Equador praticamente sem produção de coca desde meados da década de 1980, e está trabalhando com o apoio dos EUA para combater o branqueamento de capitais e o transbordo de drogas e produtos químicos essenciais para o processamento de cocaína. O Equador também dá prioridade à luta contra o trabalho infantil e o tráfico de pessoas.
A assistência dos EUA no Equador, embora limitada desde que a USAID partiu para Quito em 2014, tem como objetivo fortalecer o Estado de direito e a sociedade civil, melhorar a segurança do cidadão, combater o tráfico ilícito, combater a violência baseada no gênero, promover intercâmbios acadêmicos, conservar a biodiversidade, mitigar riscos e impactos de desastres naturais e abordar as mudanças climáticas. Após o terremoto de 16 de abril de 2016 que atingiu a costa centro-norte do Equador, os Estados Unidos forneceram mais de US $ 5,5 milhões em assistência oficial a desastres.
Relações Econômicas Bilaterais.
Além do comércio de combustíveis fósseis, os Estados Unidos são o principal parceiro comercial do Equador. As principais exportações dos EUA para o Equador incluem produtos petrolíferos, máquinas, computadores e equipamentos eletrônicos, produtos químicos e fertilizantes, equipamentos de transporte e cereais e grãos. O Equador beneficia de entrada isenta de impostos nos Estados Unidos para muitos dos seus produtos no âmbito do Sistema de Preferências Generalizadas. As importações dos EUA do Equador incluem petróleo bruto, camarão e camarão, banana e banana, cacau e flores cortadas (rosas). Os dois países têm um tratado de investimento bilateral em vigor desde 1997. O investimento direto dos EUA no Equador é liderado pelos setores de manufatura e atacado / varejo.
Associação do Equador em Organizações Internacionais.
O Equador e os Estados Unidos pertencem a várias organizações internacionais, incluindo as Nações Unidas, a Organização dos Estados Americanos, o Fundo Monetário Internacional, o Banco Mundial e a Organização Mundial do Comércio. O Equador também é membro da Alternativa Bolivariana para as Américas (ALBA) e das Nações Unidas do Sul (UNASUL).
As principais autoridades da embaixada dos EUA estão listadas na Lista de Dirigentes-Chave do Departamento.
O Equador mantém uma embaixada nos Estados Unidos em 2535 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009 (tel. 202-234-7200).
Mais informações sobre o Equador estão disponíveis no Departamento de Estado e em outras fontes, algumas das quais estão listadas aqui:

Departamento de Estado dos E. U.A.
Diplomacia em Ação.
Declaração de clima de investimento 2013 - Equador.
Abertura e Restrição sobre, Investimento Estrangeiro.
O Equador é relativamente aberto ao investimento estrangeiro na maioria dos setores, incluindo manufatura geral, varejo e serviços. No entanto, o seu clima global de investimento permanece incerto à medida que as políticas econômicas, comerciais e de investimento continuam a mudar. Embora algumas leis e regulamentos tenham sido promulgados para estimular o aumento do investimento privado nacional e estrangeiro, outras mudanças legais reduziram a participação do setor privado nos chamados setores estratégicos, principalmente as indústrias extrativas, e afetaram negativamente os setores bancário e de mídia. Mudanças freqüentes no código tributário do Equador dificultam o planejamento de negócios. O ambiente de negócios do Equador e o status de longo prazo de uma série de tratados de investimento bilaterais, inclusive com os Estados Unidos, permanecem incertos.
Em geral, a complexidade jurídica resultante da aplicação inconsistente e da interpretação das leis existentes complica a execução de contratos e aumenta os riscos e os custos de fazer negócios no Equador. De acordo com o Plano Nacional de Desenvolvimento (& ldquo; Plano Nacional para o Buen Vivir & rdquo;), o crescimento econômico não é um fim em si mesmo e o desenvolvimento econômico é liderado pelo estado. O investimento privado, portanto, não constitui uma prioridade política. Funcionários do governo e empresas privadas do Equador usaram esquemas regulatórios e manobras legais questionáveis ​​para afetar as operações de empresas estrangeiras no país. Às vezes, as empresas foram confrontadas com exigências de pagamentos adicionais não negociados em acordos originais. Receber pagamentos completos e atempados devido pode ser outro problema recorrente. As disputas comerciais com empresas dos EUA podem se tornar politizadas, especialmente em áreas sensíveis como o setor de energia. Várias disputas comerciais envolvendo empresas norte-americanas, em sua maioria ligadas ao setor de energia, estão atualmente sob arbitragem internacional. O governo central e uma série de governos provinciais estão explorando maneiras de fornecer serviços de atração de investimentos para apoiar o investimento atual, facilitar a entrada de novos investimentos e aliviar os obstáculos burocráticos e outros acima mencionados.
O investimento estrangeiro com participação estrangeira de até 100% é atualmente permitido sem autorização prévia ou triagem na maioria dos setores da economia equatoriana atualmente abertos ao investimento privado nacional. Não há discriminação legal contra investidores estrangeiros no momento em que os investimentos são feitos. Os investidores estrangeiros podem participar de programas de pesquisa financiados pelo governo. Os investidores estrangeiros devem registrar seus investimentos com o Banco Central para fins estatísticos. A lei equatoriana exige que as empresas privadas distribuam 15% dos lucros antes dos impostos a seus empregados a cada ano.
O Equador não tem uma lei que rege especificamente as franquias. Para as transações de licenças e franquias, não há limites sobre o montante de royalties que podem ser remetidos, mas o imposto sobre saídas de capital aumentou de dois por cento para cinco por cento em 24 de novembro de 2011. Todos os contratos de licença e franquia devem ser registrados com o equatoriano. Instituto de Propriedade Intelectual (IEPI).
Os artigos 313 a 315 da Constituição de 2008 estabelecem que o Estado é responsável pela gestão de & ldquo; setores estratégicos & rdquo; através de empresas estatais ou controladas. Os setores estratégicos identificados incluem: energia em todas as suas formas, telecomunicações, recursos naturais não renováveis ​​(incluindo petróleo, gás natural e mineração), transporte, refino de hidrocarbonetos, mídia, água e biodiversidade, e “patrimônio genético”. Nos últimos anos, novas empresas estatais foram formadas em mineração, produtos farmacêuticos e planejamento estratégico. Uma empresa estatal única (SOE), a FABREC EP, foi criada por decreto presidencial em abril de 2012 com um amplo mandato que abrange desde importação de armas e equipamentos de segurança até a construção de infra-estrutura e fabricação de uniformes.
Setores Estratégicos Selecionados:
Todos os recursos subterrâneos pertencem ao estado. O Equador permite o investimento de companhias de petróleo estrangeiras, mas mudou os termos de participação do setor privado no setor nos últimos anos. Antes da mudança, as empresas de petróleo estrangeiras estavam envolvidas em atividades de exploração e desenvolvimento em contratos de compartilhamento de produção com a Petrocuter, empresa estatal de petróleo, que deu aos investidores privados o direito de compartilhar em achados. Em 2010, o governo mudou esses contratos para um modelo de taxa por serviço. Em 2012, o governo assinou alguns contatos de serviços híbridos, nos quais as empresas de serviços de petróleo têm um papel mais tradicional na produção de petróleo, financiando investimentos e assumindo riscos.
Somente o estado está autorizado a participar de atividades de distribuição, refinação e transporte de combustível doméstico. Os preços dos combustíveis são controlados e subsidiados pelo governo central. O Equador tem capacidade insuficiente de refino para atender à demanda interna de produtos refinados e deve importar muitos derivados de petróleo. O Equador depende em grande parte das importações de diesel, gastando US $ 1,4 bilhão para importar 10,5 milhões de barris de diesel de janeiro a agosto de 2012 e subsidia fortemente os preços na bomba.
As reformas à Lei de Hidrocarbonetos do Equador, que entraram em vigor em 27 de julho de 2010, proporcionaram o quadro legal e os prazos para o governo equatoriano negociar novos contratos com companhias de petróleo estrangeiras que operam no país. As negociações com os principais operadores de petróleo estrangeiros foram concluídas em 23 de novembro de 2010, resultando em novos contratos de serviços para sete concessões com cinco operadores. As negociações não foram bem sucedidas com outras três empresas, que negociaram o volume de negócios de suas operações para o estado e deixaram o país. Operadores marginais de campos de petróleo concluíram novas negociações de contratos de serviço com o governo em 2011. Algumas características gerais do novo contrato de serviço são que o Estado recebe um pagamento inicial de 25% da receita bruta como uma margem soberana; as empresas recebem uma tarifa negociada por barril para o petróleo produzido; e, embora a arbitragem internacional não esteja disponível para problemas de incumprimento de impostos ou contratos, outros casos podem ser ouvidos de acordo com as regras da CNUDMI pelo Centro de Arbitragem e Mediação de Santiago (Chile).
Petroecuador e Petroamazonas, o operador do antigo campo de petróleo Occidental Petroleum oficialmente fundiu em novembro de 2012, mas a união das operações ainda é um trabalho em andamento. Em 28 de novembro de 2012, o presidente do Equador lançou oficialmente o & ldquo; 11th Round & rdquo; de propostas para exploração de petróleo de treze blocos de petróleo no sudeste do Equador. O Equador destinou três campos adicionais para a empresa pública Petroamazonas, que entrará em acordos de exploração com empresas de petróleo estatais estrangeiras, acordos que não estarão abertos para licitação competitiva. O prazo para apresentar uma proposta é 30 de maio de 2013, e o Equador decidirá sobre os contratos de quatro anos com pagamento por serviço até dezembro de 2013.
O fechamento esperado da refinaria de Esmeraldas para uma grande reforma, inicialmente prevista para 2012, foi adiada para 2013. Restrições financeiras atrasaram a construção da Refinaria do Pacífico (avaliada em US $ 12 bilhões), uma joint venture entre a Petroecuador e a PDVESA venezuelana.
Uma empresa de petróleo dos EUA foi afetada por uma sentença proferida em janeiro de 2012 pelo Tribunal de Apelação na Sucumb & iacute; os province, confirmando um julgamento de US $ 19 bilhões em um processo ambiental de longa data. Os demandantes estão perseguindo os ativos da empresa em terceiros países. Separadamente, em maio de 2012, o Equador chegou a uma liquidação de quase US $ 217 milhões com uma companhia de petróleo internacional após a rescisão unilateral da concessão de petróleo da empresa em outubro de 2010.
Em setembro, o Equador declarou que os biocombustíveis são uma prioridade nacional baseada na eficiência energética e nos objetivos nacionais de desenvolvimento agrícola. Em maio de 2013, o combustível diesel premium deve incluir biocombustíveis de origem vegetal produzidos no Equador. Atualmente, apenas as empresas privadas estão envolvidas na produção de biocombustíveis, mas o decreto torna a Petroecuador responsável pela mistura de diesel básico e biocombustíveis, além de venda aos retalhistas.
O setor de mineração está relativamente aberto ao investimento estrangeiro. Os estrangeiros têm o mesmo acesso às concessões de mineração em larga escala como investidores nacionais, mas são proibidos de investir em operações de mineração em pequena escala. O potencial de mineração do Equador é concentrado em ouro, cobre e prata. Os investidores estrangeiros devem receber permissão do presidente e a aprovação do Ministério da Defesa para obter direitos mineiros em zonas adjacentes a fronteiras internacionais. Embora o aumento dos preços das commodities tenha levado a um aumento no interesse no investimento mineiro no Equador nos últimos anos, os problemas com o quadro regulatório e as discrepâncias com as comunidades locais opostas às operações de mineração criam incertezas no setor. Um polêmico polêmico projeto de legislação sobre o uso da água que provavelmente teria conseqüências regulatórias para muitas indústrias, incluindo mineração, ainda está pendente na Assembléia Nacional.
O investimento na mineração continua a ser modesto pelos padrões andinos, mas espera-se que eleve nos próximos anos, devido ao desejo do governo de extrair receitas do setor. Em abril de 2008, a Assembléia Constitucional do Equador revogou a maioria das concessões de mineração existentes, suspendendo a atividade de mineração em larga escala por mais de um ano; uma lei de mineração foi aprovada em janeiro de 2009. Os seus regulamentos de implementação foram publicados no mês de novembro seguinte. A lei exige que todas as concessionárias de mineração paguem um mínimo de cinco por cento de royalties na venda de todos os minerais primários e secundários; um imposto de renda adicional de 25%; um imposto de 12% sobre lucros; um imposto extraordinário de 70% sobre lucros extraordinários; e um imposto sobre valor agregado de 12%.
A lei de mineração também forneceu um quadro legal mínimo para as empresas retomarem atividades de exploração. No entanto, várias empresas discordaram dos acordos de financiamento e de participação nos lucros e o investimento está paralisado. Em janeiro de 2010, o governo equatoriano estabeleceu uma nova Companhia Nacional de Mineração (ENAMI) para se envolver em empreendimentos conjuntos com empresas estatais e privadas e aumentar o investimento governamental no setor. De acordo com a lei de mineração, a ENAMI tem o direito de primeira recusa a estabelecer operações de mineração em áreas consideradas de "juros" pelo governo e onde não existe nenhuma concessão anterior.
Em março de 2012, foi assinado um decreto solicitando a aprovação do Ministério dos Recursos Naturais Não Renováveis ​​para implementar transferências diretas ou indiretas de ações de mineração. As empresas foram solicitadas a pagar 1% do valor total da transação ao governo para concluir uma venda ou transferência.
Em junho de 2012, uma empresa de mineração internacional vendeu sua participação em uma concessão de ouro com um desconto considerável. A venda fazia parte de uma estratégia de empresa mais ampla, mas também foi influenciada pelo lento progresso nas negociações com o governo e incertezas gerais no setor de mineração. O primeiro contrato de mineração de cobre em larga escala foi assinado com uma empresa estatal em março de 2012. Após a conclusão de estudos de pré-viabilidade, um grande projeto de ouro e prata localizado no sudeste do Equador alcançou um acordo não vinculativo com o governo em no final de 2011, mas as discussões estão paralisadas em 2012.
A Constituição do Equador de 2008 declarou o setor elétrico como um setor público e estratégico. Algumas pequenas empresas de geração de eletricidade foram autorizadas a continuar sob a propriedade privada, mas espera-se que grandes investimentos sejam de propriedade pública. Apenas uma empresa dos EUA ainda opera uma usina de geração de energia elétrica no Equador. Outra empresa americana vendeu sua usina de energia elétrica a gás no governo equatoriano em maio de 2011, depois que o governo declarou que a empresa violava o contrato em relação às operações de gás associadas.
O governo equatoriano está realizando um programa de grande escala para expandir a capacidade de geração do país em mais de 60%, construindo 10 grandes projetos de energia eólica e hidrelétrica. Até à data, no entanto, todos os contratos de construção e equipamentos foram concedidos a empresas estatais chinesas e russas em um processo de licitação não competitivo ligado ao financiamento fornecido pela China e na Rússia.
O planejado sistema de transmissão de alta tensão de 500 KV para ligar Quito e Guayaquil à usina hidrelétrica de 1500 MW da Coca Codo Sinclair, atualmente em construção no Equador, está enfrentando dificuldades financeiras. Para que a planta funcione efetivamente, o projeto de transmissão de US $ 500 milhões deve ser concluído ao mesmo tempo que a própria usina hidrelétrica. A fábrica está em construção pela firma chinesa Sinhydro e está programada para entrar on-line em janeiro de 2016.
Uma lei de 2002 liberalizou o setor de telecomunicações básico, anteriormente controlado pelo Estado. Dois grupos privados com participação estrangeira receberam concessões em 1993 para desenvolver sistemas de telefonia celular. Uma terceira empresa estatal recebeu concessão de celular em 2003 e foi recentemente absorvida pela empresa estatal de telecomunicações Corporaci & oacute; n Nacional de Telecomunicaciones (CNT). Em 2004, a empresa norte-americana BellSouth vendeu seus ativos no Equador para a espanhola Telef & oacute nica, a operadora de telefonia móvel com a segunda maior participação de mercado das duas operadoras de celular de propriedade estrangeira. Claro, anteriormente a Porta, o provedor celular dominante, pertence a um investidor mexicano. Uma legislação adicional de telecomunicações, que poderia aumentar a centralização e o controle governamental do setor, deveria ser introduzida em meados de 2011, mas foi adiada. Os serviços de satélites e internet são fornecidos por empresas privadas. Em julho de 2011, o governo vendeu o capital restante de 35% na TVCable, um provedor de serviços de cabo e internet, para uma empresa de retenção privada.
Em 1998, o Emetel, o antigo monopólio de telefonia do estado, foi dividido em duas corporações (Andinatel nas terras altas e Pacifictel na região costeira). A Pacifictel enfrentou graves desafios de gestão e foi o foco de vários escândalos. A Andinatel e a Pacifictel receberam aprovação para se fundir em 2008 e formaram a CNT, que foi convertida em uma empresa totalmente pública em janeiro de 2010. Um novo Ministério de Telecomunicações foi criado em agosto de 2009, modificando o papel dos principais participantes do setor. Os requisitos legais pesados ​​da CNT e os atrasos nos pagamentos ao setor privado continuam a prejudicar o investimento estrangeiro.
O governo do Equador não cumpriu o resultado de duas decisões judiciais em 2011 e 2012 que encontraram a favor de um provedor de serviços de telecomunicações nos EUA.
Medidas econômicas e de negócios / Ranking.
Percepções de Corrupção de TI.
Liberdade econômica patrimonial.
Banco Mundial Fazendo Negócios.
Políticas de conversão e transferência.
Em 2000, após uma grave crise financeira, o Equador adotou o dólar americano como moeda oficial. Depois que o Equador adotou o dólar, as taxas de inflação caíram de quase 100% em 2000 para apenas um dígito desde 2003. De acordo com o Banco Central do Equador, a taxa de inflação anualizada de novembro de 2012 é de 4,8%.
Os investidores estrangeiros podem remeter 100% do lucro líquido e do capital, sujeitos a um imposto de saída de capital de 5%. Os investidores também podem repatriar o produto da liquidação de seus investimentos. Não há limitações atuais nas saídas de fundos para o serviço da dívida, ganhos de capital, retornos da propriedade intelectual ou insumos importados. Também não há atrasos significativos para a remessa de retornos de investimento, como dividendos, retorno de capital, juros e principal sobre dívida externa privada, pagamentos de locação, royalties e taxas de administração através de canais legais normais.
Os equatorianos também podem exportar capital, e existem participações financeiras equatorianas substanciais nos Estados Unidos e em outros centros bancários offshore. No entanto, em 24 de novembro de 2011, o governo equatoriano aumentou o imposto sobre todas as saídas de capital de dois para cinco por cento. Várias isenções ao imposto sobre a saída de capital foram aprovadas em maio de 2012, principalmente para pagamentos de importações de matérias-primas usadas na fabricação de exportações. Em meados de 2012, mais de 3.350 itens tarifários estavam isentos.
Em 2012, o Equador designou os Estados Unidos da Delaware, Flórida, Nevada e Wyoming como "paraísos fiscais". & Rdquo; A lista também designava Porto Rico, as Ilhas Virgens dos EUA, Samoa Americana e Guam. As empresas baseadas nesses locais estão excluídas de competir por contratos de compras do governo equatoriano. Tanto as empresas como os indivíduos que residem nesses locais devem pagar imposto de renda sobre dividendos (10 por cento são retidos automaticamente) e não são elegíveis para qualquer exceção ao imposto de saída de capital de cinco por cento.
Expropriação e Compensação.
A expropriação é permitida sob a lei equatoriana com uma compensação adequada. Em casos de expropriação, a parte afetada tem o direito de solicitar que um juiz estabeleça um preço justo para as explorações expropriadas. A Lei de Desenvolvimento Agrário restringe os fundamentos de expropriação de terras agrícolas e torna os casos de terra sujeitos a tribunais regulares. Pode ser difícil aplicar os direitos de propriedade e concessão, particularmente nos setores de agricultura, mineração, energia e imóveis comerciais e residenciais. Em alguns casos, o sistema judicial do Equador não conseguiu fornecer proteção adequada contra expropriações ilegais ou fornecer aos investidores e mutuantes uma indenização pronta, adequada e efetiva para propriedades desapropriadas.
A Constituição de 2008 estabelece que o Estado administra o uso da terra e o acesso às terras, reconhecendo e garantindo o direito à propriedade privada, e que deve desempenhar funções sociais e ambientais. A Constituição prevê a redistribuição da terra se a terra não estiver em uso produtivo por mais de dois anos. A definição de & ldquo; uso produtivo & rdquo; é complicado, particularmente para pastagens e terras não exploradas. O acesso à terra para os sem-terra é um tema importante da política agrícola do governo, mas até o momento, não houve qualquer apreensão pública de ativos privados sob a administração atual. O Código Orgânico para Produção e Investimento Comercial (& ldquo; Código de Produção & rdquo;), aprovado em 2010, inclui a expropriação como possibilidade de melhorar a distribuição de fatores de produção e aumentar as oportunidades para a população rural. A nova legislação de reforma agrária, originalmente prevista para 2011, foi adiada devido à natureza política altamente encarregada da questão.
Algumas empresas mineiras locais e estrangeiras tiveram suas concessões ocupadas por mineros informais, que posteriormente buscaram uma parte das concessões ou realizaram atividades de mineração sem repercussões.
A propriedade, seja de propriedade terrestre ou móvel, de propriedade conjunta de várias pessoas ou empresas, pode ser apreendida por tribunais equatorianos por meio de sentenças ou ordens de apreensão. Resolução e compensação normalmente exigem muitos anos e custos legais significativos. Além disso, a Lei Orgânica para a Defesa dos Direitos do Trabalho, aprovada em setembro de 2012, permite que bens sejam apreendidos por entidades estatais (administrador de impostos, bancos estaduais e governos municipais) quando as dívidas não foram atendidas. A lei eliminou as proteções fornecidas pela Limited Liability Companies (LLCs), estendendo dívidas corporativas aos seus acionistas, seus herdeiros ou terceiros que tenham uma relação com o devedor. Em 2012, a autoridade fiscal usou o mandato da lei para apreender os ativos de um conglomerado voltado para a exportação.
Sob o tratado de investimento bilateral existente (BIT) do Equador com os Estados Unidos, a expropriação só pode ser realizada para fins públicos, de forma não discriminatória, e mediante o pagamento de uma compensação rápida, adequada e efetiva.
Há uma série de litígios de expropriação relacionados ao setor de petróleo que ainda estão pendentes em processos de arbitragem internacional. Em 2012, os árbitros internacionais encontraram a favor de empresas americanas em duas importantes disputas do setor do petróleo. Ambos os prêmios estão sujeitos a processos de apelação.
A fraqueza sistêmica no sistema judicial e sua susceptibilidade a pressões políticas ou econômicas constituem problemas importantes enfrentados pelas empresas americanas que investem ou negociam com o Equador. O sistema judicial equatoriano é dificultado pelo processamento de atrasos, julgamentos imprevisíveis em casos civis e comerciais, decisões inconsistentes e acesso limitado aos tribunais. Reclamações criminais e mandados de prisão contra funcionários de empresas estrangeiras foram usados ​​para pressionar empresas envolvidas em disputas comerciais. Houve casos em que funcionários de empresas estrangeiras foram impedidos pelos tribunais de deixar o Equador devido a reivindicações pendentes contra a empresa. Os equatorianos envolvidos em disputas empresariais supostamente às vezes podem providenciar para que seus oponentes, inclusive estrangeiros, sejam presos na pendência da resolução da disputa.
Preocupações foram levantadas na mídia e no setor privado, que os tribunais equatorianos podem ser suscetíveis a pressões externas e são percebidos como corruptos, ineficazes e protetores dos que estão no poder. A supervisão legislativa foi restrita após a aprovação da Lei dos Assuntos Legislativos em 2009. O sistema judiciário que sofre de recursos continua a funcionar de forma lenta e ineficiente. Após um referendo público em maio de 2011, o judiciário está operando sob um decreto de emergência que confere ao poder executivo poder reestruturar o sistema judiciário. Aproximadamente US $ 500 milhões foram gastos no processo de reestruturação. Como parte da reestruturação, funcionários que representam a legislatura, o executivo e o conselho de participação nomearam centenas de novos juízes em todos os tribunais em 2012, após um processo de seleção. Nem a supervisão legislativa nem os mecanismos do ramo judiciário interno mostraram uma capacidade consistente de investigar com eficácia e disciplinar juízes supostamente corruptos. Em janeiro de 2010, o Equador retirou-se do Centro Internacional para Arbitragem de Disputas sobre Investimentos entre Estados e Nacionais de Outros Estados do Banco Mundial (“Convenção ICSID”).
De acordo com o Índice do Estado de Direito do Projeto Justiça Mundial, o Equador classifica-se muito baixo (zero sendo o menor e o maior escore) na Regulamentação (0,46 / 1), na Justiça Civil (0,42 / 1) e na Justiça Criminal (0,44 / 1). 1), entre 97 países. Em dezembro de 2012, um comitê de supervisão internacional apresentou um relatório com conclusões e recomendações sobre a implementação da reforma. Atualmente, existem mais de 55.000 leis e regulamentos vigentes. Muitos deles são conflitantes, o que contribui para decisões judiciais imprevisíveis e às vezes contraditórias. A execução dos direitos contratuais, a igualdade de tratamento perante a lei, a proteção dos direitos de propriedade intelectual e os regimes regulatórios imprevisíveis são as principais preocupações dos investidores estrangeiros.
O Tratado de Investimento Bilateral existente (BIT) dos Estados Unidos e do Equador prevê a arbitragem internacional vinculativa de litígios entre o governo e o investidor em um local de escolha do investidor, incluindo a Convenção ICSID. Espaços de arbitragem alternativos disponíveis para investidores dos EUA incluem: Facilidade Adicional do ICSID; arbitragem ad hoc de acordo com as regras da UNCITRAL; e arbitragem administrada por qualquer outra instituição arbitral a que as partes concordem. Se o governo equatoriano encerrar o BIT EUA-Equador, as provisões do BIT estarão em vigor por um ano a partir da data do aviso de rescisão, e por mais 10 anos para investimentos existentes no aniversário de um ano do aviso de término (veja a seção "Contratos Bilaterais de Investimento" para mais detalhes).
O Código de Produção e o Código de Planejamento e Finanças Públicas do Equador contém disposições que permitem ao Estado negociar a inclusão de uma cláusula de arbitragem internacional dentro de contratos com investidores privados ou credores de países. Estes contratos ainda não foram comprovados.
Várias empresas americanas que operam no Equador, principalmente em setores regulados, como petróleo e eletricidade, solicitaram a arbitragem internacional resultante de disputas de investimento. Os investidores em setores mais ligeiramente regulamentados tiveram menos disputas.
Requisitos de desempenho e incentivos.
Não há requisitos formais de desempenho associados ao investimento estrangeiro no Equador. O Código de Produção do país estabelece incentivos fiscais para atrair investimentos nacionais e estrangeiros em determinados setores prioritários: alimentos frescos e processados, silvicultura, agro-silvicultura, metalurgia, produtos petroquímicos, produtos farmacêuticos, turismo, energias renováveis, serviços logísticos, biotecnologia, aplicada software, e aqueles determinados pelo presidente do Equador para ser "substituição estratégica de importação & rdquo; setores. Alguns incentivos, que podem assumir a forma de isenções de impostos, deduções do imposto de renda, bem como um feriado fiscal de cinco anos, são aplicáveis ​​principalmente para investimentos feitos fora de Quito e Guayaquil e para novos investimentos. Para se qualificar para os incentivos fiscais, uma proposta de investimento deve ser aprovada por um Secretário Técnico do Conselho Setorial de Produção. Até à data, poucas empresas solicitaram esses incentivos. As normas de implementação do Código de Produção foram publicadas em abril de 2011.
Em novembro de 2012, a Assembléia Nacional aprovou a Lei Orgânica para a Redistribuição de Renda de Despesas Sociais que o Presidente Correa propôs como "economicamente urgente" legislação. A legislação elimina os incentivos fiscais que beneficiaram o sistema financeiro ao reinvestir os lucros. O Código de Produção também contém medidas para promover o estabelecimento e o crescimento das pequenas e médias empresas (PME). As medidas destinam-se a melhorar o acesso das PME ao financiamento de bancos públicos e ao mercado de ações e a desenvolver instituições de garantia de crédito e um sistema de garantia especial para o financiamento das PME. O Equador aprovou dez leis tributárias entre janeiro de 2006 e dezembro de 2012 que modificaram significativamente os incentivos econômicos e causaram incerteza substancial.
De acordo com a Política Automotriz Comum da Comunidade Andina, o Equador e a Colômbia impõem requisitos de conteúdo local aos automóveis montados no país para se qualificarem para direitos reduzidos nas importações. O Acordo da OMC sobre Medidas de Investimento Relacionadas com o Comércio (TRIMS) proíbe tais requisitos. Embora, no âmbito do Acordo TRIMS, o Equador tenha sido obrigado a eliminar os requisitos de conteúdo local em 2000, o requisito de conteúdo local ainda está em vigor; Em 2012, o requisito era de 24,3%.
O Equador é beneficiário da Lei de Promoção Comercial Andina e Erradicação de Drogas (ATPDEA), que renovou e ampliou a Lei de Preferências Comerciais Andina (ATPA). O principal objetivo deste programa é promover a diversificação das exportações e fornecer alternativas econômicas sustentáveis ​​às atividades relacionadas à droga na região andina. O programa atual fornece ao Equador acesso livre de impostos ao mercado dos EUA para mais de 6.000 produtos e ajudou a promover o crescimento das exportações de flores de corte, atum, têxtil, vestuário, madeira, frutas e vegetais do Equador. Em outubro de 2011, o Congresso dos EUA aprovou a prorrogação do programa ATPDEA até julho de 2013, com benefício retroativo, após o término do programa em fevereiro de 2011. O Equador também é beneficiário do programa comercial Sistema de Preferências Generalizadas, que também foi renovado até julho de 2013.
Através do seu programa InvestEcuador, o Governo do Equador promove e facilita o investimento local e estrangeiro, particularmente em áreas de interesse especial para o desenvolvimento. In May 2011, Ecuador launched the Institute for Export and Investment Promotion (PRO ECUADOR), which to date has focused more strongly on export promotion. A number of Ecuador’s provinces are also working to attract investment, often as public-private collaborations between provincial governments and private commercial associations and universities. In addition to conducting international road shows to attract foreign direct investment (FDI), the provincial investment promotion agencies seek to assist both current and prospective investors to open new facilities, increase existing investments, and overcome bureaucratic hurdles. Visa and residence requirements do not inhibit foreign investment.
Right to Private Ownership and Establishment.
Foreign and domestic private entities can own business enterprises and engage in almost all forms of business activity. Private entities can compete freely with the public sector. In August 2008, Ecuador’s Constituent Assembly passed a new public contracting law, which grants priority to locally-produced products and services in public purchases, although foreign suppliers can compete for the contracts. The National Institute for Public Contracting (INCOP) has regulated the process for evaluating proposals. Local origin content is not the only factor evaluated in awarding a contract; other factors such as price and quality are also assessed. The law eliminates a requirement to obtain approval from the Attorney General and the Controller prior to awarding a government contract, and charges INCOP with ensuring transparency and timeliness of the contracting process. Emergency decrees for public procurement are used frequently and allow public entities to by - pass the procurement processes established in the law.
In the utility sector, Ecuador has fostered the creation of mixed companies that fall under a special tax and procurement regime. In 2012, the government regulator registered 120 mixed economy companies, including joint ventures with foreign state-owned enterprises, like the Rio Napo Consortium that operates the Sacha oil field with Venezuelan capital.
Protection of Property Rights.
There have been numerous instances where the judicial system has not adequately protected property owners’ direitos. U. S. investors in real estate should exercise caution when considering a land purchase in Ecuador.
Ecuador's intellectual property regime is governed by the 1998 "Law on Intellectual Property." The law is intended to provide criminal and administrative relief to right holders. Ecuador has ratified the Berne Convention for the protection of literary and artistic works, the Geneva Phonogram Convention, and the Patent Cooperation Treaty. Ecuador is also bound by Andean Community Decisions 345, 351, and 486. Decision 486 improves intellectual property protection by expanding the definition of patentability and strengthening data exclusivity provisions. Ecuador is not a party to the Madrid Protocol on trademarks.
The Ecuadorian Intellectual Property Institute (IEPI) was established in January 1999 to handle patent, trademark, and copyright registrations. Ecuador has been on the Special 301 Watch List of the Office of the United States Trade Representative since 2003. Enforcement against intellectual property infringement remains a serious problem in Ecuador. The national police and the customs authority are responsible for carrying out IPR enforcement orders, but enforcement of court orders can be problematic. There is widespread local trade in pirated audio and video recordings, computer software, as well as counterfeit activity in brand name apparel. On the other hand, local registration of unauthorized copies of well-known trademarks has been reduced.
On October 23, 2012, the Ecuadorean Institute of Intellectual Property issued a resolution that significantly increased the maintenance fees for patents and plant varieties. Over 20 years, the fees would amount to approximately $145,000 for patents and $170,000 for plant varieties. Prior to the resolution, patent maintenance fees were less than $6000 in Ecuador.
Ecuadorian government health authorities continue to approve the commercialization of new drugs that are the bioequivalent of patented drugs, thereby denying the originator companies effective patent protection for innovative drugs. A modification to Ecuador's health code in late 2006 permits the granting of sanitary registrations without regard to whether a medication is patented.
Presidential Decree 181, issued on December 21, 2009, established a National Pharmaceutical Company (ENFARMA) which has been selling imported generics from Cuba. It is now conducting feasibility studies to build a production plant in Quito.
In September 2012, IEPI issued a resolution that raises the fees established in June 2011 and May 2010. IEPI justified the new fees on the basis of a new system of surcharges for late payments, allowing discounts to universities, small and medium enterprises, public entities and farmers, and adopting new prices for validation of inventions or processes over a 20-year period.
The IPR law covers protection for industrial designs and extends protection to industrial secrets and geographical indicators. Semiconductor chip layouts are protected. Plant varieties and other biotechnology products are also, in theory, protected.
The Ecuadorian National Police and Customs service are responsible for carrying out IPR enforcement, but do not always enforce court orders. IEPI can take enforcement actions through an administrative process that can result in sanctions and/or interception of counterfeit goods by Ecuadorian Customs. In early 2011, IEPI initiated an enforcement initiative aimed at stores selling pirated DVDs and CDs. This initiative was not sustained, however, and sales of pirated goods resumed.
Transparency of the Regulatory System.
The GOE enacted the Organic Law for Regulation and Control of Market Power, otherwise known as the “Anti-Monopoly Law” in October 2011. It issued implementing regulations for the Anti-Monopoly Law in April 2012 and the provisions include mechanisms to prevent, control, and sanction market power abuses, restrictive market practices, economic concentration and unfair competition. The regulatory body began operations in October 2012. Sanctions for companies found to be in violation of the law can range from a formal warning up to a fine of 12 percent of previous year’s gross revenues.
The Superintendency of Banks and Insurance regulates financial and insurance institutions. The 2008 Constitution calls for the creation of separate regulatory agencies for the public, private, and informal sectors. The Constitution also mandates that each financial institution have an ombudsman office. The Law for the Creation of a Financial Safety Net, which was approved by the National Assembly in December 2008, improved coordination of the financial regulatory agencies. In October 2009, the National Assembly passed a law reforming the Central Bank Charter, eliminating its autonomy and redefining the composition of its Board. The new Charter gives the executive branch total control over Central Bank policies and operations. Reportedly, the purpose of this law was to align the Central Bank Charter with Articles 302 and 303 of the 2008 Constitution.
The National Secretariat of Telecommunications (SENATEL) establishes the regulatory framework for fixed-line and wireless communications services. The Superintendency of Telecommunications (SUPERTEL) controls and establishes sanctions to fixed-line and wireless communications services. The National Council of Radio Broadcasting and Television (CONARTEL), which previously regulated broadcasters, became part of SENATEL after the creation of the new Ministry of Telecommunications in August 2009. The Superintendency of Companies regulates all other firms and, via the National Securities Council, the Quito, Guayaquil, and Over-the-Counter stock exchanges.
Policies, regulations, and standards, particularly in regards to agricultural trade, often are not based on scientific principles and discriminate between local and imported products. Political appointees in the Ministries of Agriculture and Health control imports of agricultural goods, and customs procedures are cumbersome. Ecuadorian regulators currently provide little or no opportunity for public comment on newly proposed laws and regulations, particularly those related to food safety, sanitary and phytosanitary and other trade-related matters. A new agency for sanitary regulation and control (ARCSA) was created by decree in August 2012 in parallel with the National Institute for Public Health Research (INSPI). Ecuador does not always comply fully with WTO notification requirements.
Efficient Capital Markets and Portfolio Investment.
The 1993 Capital Markets Law set up a modern regulatory structure, opened stock market trading to banks and other firms, and encouraged the issuance of commercial paper. However, Ecuadorian capital markets remain underdeveloped. Most large industrial groups are privately held and are financed largely through debt, commercial paper, or retained earnings. Some firms maintain external credit lines or other forms of foreign financing; however, the five-percent capital exit tax applies to external payments and increases the cost. Thus, many companies have switched to cheaper sources of financing, like issuance of commercial paper. The bulk of activity on the country's two small stock exchanges currently involves trading in fixed income securities, mainly government bonds and privately issued commercial paper. Most stock trades involve shares in a handful of banks and companies. Public institutions are not legally required to trade securities through the stock exchanges; therefore the terms of the transactions are unknown. The Social Security Institute and Social Security Bank (BIESS) are the main players in the government bond market.
A new securities’ market draft law has been on the GoE agenda during the last six years. In November 2012, the Superintendency of Companies announced that a new law will not be sent to the legislature and, instead, several reforms will be passed by administrative resolutions, including the creation of a clearinghouse for the securities’ mercado; allowing entry of new agents to the market; unification of self - regulation measures between the exchanges of Quito and Guayaquil; and new information requirements for fund administrators, securities’ traders, and trustees. Some steps were taken in 2012 to consolidate Quito and Guayaquil’s trading information systems.
In 2012, the financial system was the target of numerous new restrictions. By July 2012, most banks had sold off their brokerages, mutual funds, and insurance companies to comply with constitutional changes following a May 2010 referendum. The amendment to Article 312 of the Constitution required banks, its senior managers and shareholders with more than six percent equity in financial entities to divest entirely from any interest in all other non-financial companies by July 13, 2012. These provisions were incorporated in the Anti-Monopoly Law passed in September 2011. Non - liquidated assets were placed into a trust managed by a state development bank and must be liquidated by January 2013.
With the goal of protecting consumers and preventing a real estate bubble, the National Assembly approved in June 2012 an urgent law proposed by the president, which allows homeowners to default on their first home and car loan without penalty if they forfeit the asset. The provisions do not apply to homes valued at more than $146,000 or vehicles worth more than $29,200. In addition, the law mandates the Superintendency of Banks to set specific annual targets for mortgage activity for each financial institution based on its portfolio. This allows the government to direct banking operations, in line with trends in the financial sector. The legislation had led to reduced lending for cars and homes.
In April 2012, the Superintendency of Banks approved a regulation that prohibits financial institutions from charging clients for the issuance and renewal of credit cards, as well as the issuance of account statements. As a consequence, banks have claimed sharp reductions in profits, and adjustments in the quality of service they are able to offer.
The Central Bank issued Regulation 29 in July 2012, requiring all financial transfers (inflows and outflows) to be channeled through the Central Bank’s accounts starting November 2012. Due to operational hurdles, the measure did not take effect until January 3, 2013. In principle, the monetary authorities want to increase their oversight and prevent banks from netting their inflows and outflows to avoid paying the five-percent capital exit tax.
In November 2012, the National Assembly passed a law that severely restricts the operations of private credit risk rating agencies (bureaus). The law grants exclusive rights to credit-related data to an entity that stores all public databases. Private credit bureaus, while not prohibited from operating, are obliged to give up their databases to the government and can no longer receive data directly from the financial sector. The law will still almost certainly restrict lending to smaller, less-well-known borrowers that will be required guarantees due to a lack of reliable credit analysis services.
In November 2012, the National Assembly passed a law increasing taxes on banks to partially finance a government cash-transfer program, seriously undermining financial profitability. In addition, the law lifts banking secrecy and enables tax authorities to access credit information directly, with no interference from the banking regulator.
The Central Bank regulates and caps interest rates. Starting in July 2012, it also required banks to maintain as liquid reserves at least two percent of their deposits in securities issued by the non-financial public sector, in addition to maintaining at least 60 percent of their liquid reserves in Ecuador.
Competition from State-Owned Enterprises.
The 2009 Organic Law of Public Enterprises regulates state-owned enterprises (SOEs). SOEs are most active in sectors designated as strategic under the 2008 Constitution, especially non-renewable natural resources, telecommunications, and transportation.
In general, regulations allow SOEs greater flexibility in the use of public resources. They follow a special procurement regime with greater flexibility and limited oversight. The Law of Public Enterprises requires SOEs to follow generally accepted accounting principles; however, SOEs are not required to specifically follow the same accounting practices as the central government, nor do they have to participate in the electronic financial management system used in most of the public sector for budget and accounting management. Ecuador does not have a sovereign wealth fund, and its asset management bureau is responsible for fixed assets only. SOEs are eligible for government guarantees, and face a lower tax burden than private companies.
The Production Code softened some of the restrictions on the private sector introduced in the Constitution and in the Organic Law of Public Enterprises by allowing private investment in strategic sectors. However, the Production Code is secondary to the relevant sector laws of the strategic sectors.
Responsabilidade social corporativa.
There is substantial awareness of corporate social responsibility (CSR) among the large businesses operating in Ecuador. Many multinational and large domestic companies maintain corporate social responsibility strategies, following generally accepted CSR principles. They are active in areas such as sustainability, clean environmental practices, and education. Consumer awareness of CSR is less pronounced than producer awareness. Ecuador’s investment promotion body, InvestEcuador, emphasizes on its website that opportunities are available for investors who maintain an ethical commitment to their workers, nature, the State, and the community.
Ecuador does not have a tradition of substantial guerrilla activity, nor of frequent violence as a result of demonstrations or political instability. Crime is a serious and growing concern, especially in the larger cities.
Student, labor union, and indigenous protests against government policies have been a regular feature of political life in Ecuador. While disruptive, especially to transportation, violence is usually limited and localized. Protesters often block city streets and rural highways, and public transportation tends to be disrupted during these incidents. Protestors also occasionally burn tires, throw Molotov cocktails, engage in destruction of property, and detonate small improvised explosive devices during demonstrations, but fatalities as a result of protests have been rare. Pamphlet bombs are sometimes used to disseminate political literature. Six such bombs exploded in November and December 2011, without serious injury to person or property (although one had the potential to be lethal) and none aimed at businesses or business interests. Popular protests in 1997, 2000, and 2005 contributed to the removal of three elected presidents before the end of their terms.
Some communities have successfully used protests and strikes to obtain promises of increased government spending on social benefits and infrastructure. Some indigenous communities opposed to development have blocked access by petroleum and mining companies. In September 2009, one individual was killed near the city of Macas during protests by indigenous communities demonstrating against the government’s proposed mining and water laws. The government has increasingly filed legal charges or opened investigations against protesters who blocked roads or impeded public services. The government charged demonstrators with “terrorism and sabotage,” or similar charges that effectively criminalized protest, for obstructing roads and public services. It is against the law for non-Ecuadorians to engage in political activity that starts or promotes civil wars or international conflicts. In 2012, there were no significant political protests, likely a result of the government’s aggressive prosecution of protesters in previous years.
The political violence present in neighboring Colombia has a spillover effect in northern Ecuador. Security on the northern border with Colombia, where the majority of Ecuador's oil deposits are located, is particularly tenuous. The area is used as a transshipment point for precursor chemicals used in illegal drug production as well as arms and supplies for Colombian insurgent groups and narco-traffickers. Businesses in the area continue to report being extorted for protection money. Kidnappings have occurred and foreigners have been targeted. The U. S. Embassy in Quito advises against travel to the northern border of Ecuador – to include the provinces of Sucumbios, Orellana, Carchi, and parts of Esmeraldas. The Ecuadorian military and government agencies are increasing efforts to promote development and provide security in this area. Kidnappings are more often committed for economic rather than political motivations. Since 1998, at least 12 U. S. citizens have been kidnapped in Ecuador. In July 2012, an American citizen was kidnapped near the jungle city of Lago Agrio and held for ransom. After several weeks, the victim was rescued after an intensive investigation involving Ecuadorian, Colombian, and U. S. law enforcement.
Violent crime has significantly increased over the last few years, with American citizens being victims of crimes, including homicides, armed assaults, robberies, sexual assaults, and home invasions.
Corruption is a serious problem in Ecuador. Transparency International consistently ranks Ecuador poorly among countries it surveys in the region. Ecuador ranked 118 out of 176 countries surveyed for Transparency International's 2012 Corruption Perceptions Index and received a score of 32 out of 100 (100-very clean, 0-highly corrupt). In comparison with other countries in the Western Hemisphere, Ecuador ranks better than Nicaragua, Guyana, Honduras, Paraguay, Haiti, and Venezuela, but worse than its closest neighbors, Peru and Colombia.
Offering or accepting a bribe is illegal and punishable by imprisonment for up to five years. The Controller General is responsible for the oversight of public funds and there are frequent investigations and occasional prosecutions for irregularities. These investigations can be politically motivated. Autonomous agencies are subject to little effective oversight. Government officials and candidates for office often make an issue of corruption, but there is little follow-through once in office. Politically-motivated corruption scandals are a feature of Ecuadorian political life, but even high-profile cases often become stalled after they are remanded to lengthy and often inconclusive judicial proceedings.
Bilateral Investment Agreements.
The existing U. S.-Ecuadorian Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) provides for national treatment; unrestricted remittances and transfers; prompt, adequate, and effective compensation for expropriation; and binding international arbitration of disputes. However, in September 2009, the Ecuadorian government requested approval by Ecuador’s National Assembly to terminate the U. S.-Ecuador Bilateral Investment Treaty, along with the BITs of 12 other nations, claiming the treaties’ international arbitration provisions for resolution of investor-state disputes conflicted with the country’s 2008 Constitution. Article 422 of the 2008 Constitution states that “Ecuador will not enter into international agreements or instruments under which the Ecuadorian State would have to cede sovereign jurisdiction to international arbitral tribunals in contractual or commercial matters between the State and individuals or corporations.” The National Assembly has approved termination of five of the BITs, but did not approve termination of another four; it has not yet voted on the U. S. BIT. Only one BIT has been formally terminated.
Should the Ecuadorian government terminate its BIT with the United States, the treaty would remain fully in effect for one year from the date of a formal notice to terminate, and would apply for an additional ten years for investments made prior to the one-year anniversary of the termination notice. Given Ecuador’s withdrawal from the ICSID Convention, alternative arbitration venues identified in the U. S. BIT include ICSID’s Additional Facility; ad hoc arbitration under UNCITRAL rules; and arbitration administered by any other arbitral institution to which the parties agree.
OPIC and Other Investment Insurance Programs.
Ecuador has had an Investment Guarantee Agreement with the Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) since 1986. Ecuador has signed and ratified the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agreement (MIGA).
Ecuador's population is about 15 million. Semi-skilled workers are relatively abundant at low wages, although widespread emigration over the past few years has led to shortages of skilled workers in some parts of the country.
Minimum compensation levels for private sector employees are set annually by the National Compensation Council and Ministry of Labor Relations. The minimum basic salary for 2012 was $292 per month, but mandatory bonuses and other contributions pushed total compensation to over $400 per month. In December 2012, President Correa announced a nine percent private sector wage hike for 2013, raising the minimum wage to $318 plus mandatory bonuses and contributions. Ecuador’s Production Code, enacted in December 2010, requires that workers be paid a “dignified wage,” defined as an amount that would enable a family of four with 1.6 wage earners to be able to afford a basic basket of necessities. The cost of the basic necessities basket is determined periodically by Ecuador’s Statistics Institute (INEC). At the beginning of 2012, the basic needs basket was valued at $595.70, requiring a “dignified wage” of $372.31 per month. Should the average monthly compensation for the year not reach the dignified wage, companies are required to pay the difference in the form of bonuses, before claiming any profits. By the end of 2012, Ecuador’s urban unemployment rate was estimated at 4.6 percent, with underemployment of 42.3 percent.
Ecuador's periodic economic difficulties during recent decades have contributed to high levels of emigration. According to the latest U. S. census, almost 600,000 people of Ecuadorian ancestry live in the United States. Approximately 610,000 people, or 18 percent of Ecuador’s labor force, emigrated between 2002 and 2009, principally to Spain and to the United States.
The public education system is tuition-free and attendance is mandatory from ages six to fifteen. The current government has dramatically reduced the illegal practice of schools requiring parents to pay for education-related expenses and transportation costs. Many children drop out before age fifteen and in rural areas only about one-third complete sixth grade. The government is striving to create better programs for the rural and urban poor, especially in technical and occupational training. However, government funding for such training has not kept up with demand. In recent years, the government also has been successful in reducing illiteracy. The 2008 Constitution requires the central government to increase the budget allocation for primary and secondary education by at least 0.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) annually until reaching six percent of GDP. Since 2008, expenditures on education have grown in absolute terms, but short of the mandated growth rate. Public universities have an open admissions policy. In recent years, however, large increases in the student population, budget difficulties, and politicization of parts of the university system have put a strain on maintaining academic standards.
A weak public university system produces a surplus of semi-qualified graduates in some professions. Trained financial professionals and engineers can be difficult to attract and many graduates require additional training to reach international standards. There are relatively few R&D and high technology investments in Ecuador, limited mostly to agricultural research, with a small amount of government activity as well as that of some foreign firms. Little post-graduate education exists in Ecuador, and scientists and medical professionals are nearly all foreign-trained. At this point, none of the Ecuadorian universities offers doctorate programs beyond limited offerings in social sciences at two institutions. Masters-level degrees are widely offered, but relatively few are competitive with international quality levels. Upper-level Ecuadorian business managers have frequently been educated abroad, most often in the United States. With the new Higher Education Law, which went into effect on October 3, 2010, the Executive will regulate and oversee higher education and may demand that all institutions adhere to the National Development Plan in their program offerings. It also calls for the professionalization of the faculty by requiring a Ph. D. or equivalent degree for full time positions, although there are not enough Ecuadorians with doctorates to fulfill this requirement.
Cumbersome labor regulations apply equally to both foreign and domestic firms and tend to inhibit investment and foster evasion. In 2006, the Ministry Labor Relations worked with an ILO representative to draft a revised Labor Code to better comply with ILO standards. The Labor Code provides for a 40-hour work week, 15 calendar days of annual paid vacation, restrictions and sanctions for those who employ child labor, general protection of worker health and safety, minimum wages and bonuses, maternity leave, and employer-provided benefits. By law, companies must distribute 15 percent of pre-tax profits to their employees.
There is special legislation regulating labor in export processing zones. Most workers in export processing zones are hired on temporary contracts, and, while technically covered by the Labor Code, enforcement of the Code is weak.
The 2008 Constitution bans child labor, requires hiring workers with disabilities, and prohibits strikes in most of the public sector. Provisions that virtually eliminate hourly labor contracts and labor contracts through third parties are aimed at employers who avoid benefits for full-time employees, but the provisions also reduce flexibility in the labor market.
Most workers in the private and parastatal sectors have the constitutional right to form trade unions and local law allows for unionization of any company with more than 30 employees. However, less than two percent of the work force, mostly skilled workers in medium - to large-sized enterprises or state industries, is officially organized. Private employers are required to engage in collective bargaining with recognized unions. The Labor Code provides for resolution of conflicts through a tripartite arbitration and conciliation board process. The Code also prohibits discrimination against union members and requires that employers provide space for union activities.
The International Labor Organization and prominent NGOs believe international labor standards are not respected in Ecuador. Workers fired for organizing a labor union are entitled to limited financial indemnification, but the law does not mandate reinstatement. The Public Service Law enacted in October 2010 prohibits the vast majority of public sector workers from joining unions, exercising collective bargaining rights, or paralyzing public services in general. The Constitution lists health; environmental sanitation; education; justice; fire brigade; social security; electrical energy; drinking water and sewerage; hydrocarbon production; processing, transport, and distribution of fuel; public transport; and post and telecommunications as strategic sectors. Some of the sectors defined as strategic exceeded the ILO standard for essential services. The few public workers who are not under the Public Service Law may join a union and bargain collectively since they are governed by the provisions under the Labor Code.
With assistance from the ILO, Ecuador has been taking ambitious steps to eliminate child labor, which is still common in the informal sector, particularly in family-owned businesses. Economic realities leave families more than ready to send their children to work, even if it means pulling them out of school and placing them in fields, mines, or factories where they are exposed to hazardous conditions for little or no pay. Labor advocates in Ecuador assert that only a significant increase in wages will keep families from sending their children to work in the fields.
Foreign-Trade Zones/Free Ports.
Provisions within the 2010 Production Code superseded Ecuador’s 1991 free trade zone law. The Production Code authorizes the creation of Special Economic Development Zones (ZEDEs). ZEDEs are subject to special trade, tax, and financial rules; imported goods entering these zones are exempted from tariffs. ZEDEs are not intended to operate solely for the manufacture of exports. In granting ZEDE status to a project, the government will consider the extent to which the project promotes technology transfer, innovation, industrial diversification, and development of multimodal services. Existing free trade zones were permitted to continue to operate according to their original authorization, but administrators and users had to adjust to new administrative procedures defined for ZEDEs. A maquila (in-bond processing) law has been in effect since 1990. The majority of maquila operations in Ecuador are in the textile and fish-processing sectors.
Foreign Direct Investment Statistics.
Traditionally, FDI has been focused primarily in the oil sector. Construction of the Trans-Andean Heavy Oil Pipeline (OCP) by a consortium of five foreign oil producers, completed in October 2003, resulted in inward investment of $3.5 billion, including direct project investment of $1.4 billion. Major foreign oil companies invested billions over the last decade for exploration and production of concessions. However, since 2006, a number of major oil and gas companies have departed Ecuador. With the negotiation in November 2010 of new service oil contracts, participating companies have committed to invest $1.2 billion in production and exploration, spread over four to five years. If mining companies are able to move from the exploratory phase into production over the next several years, foreign investment in that sector would increase significantly. Foreign investment in the communications, commerce, services and agricultural sectors has become more prominent as FDI in the oil sector has declined.
Although some sizeable one-time investments have been made in recent years, foreign direct investment (FDI) in general remains modest. In 2011 there was a net inflow of FDI into Ecuador of $640 million (0.8 percent of GDP), down from a high of $1.0 billion in 2008. The FDI/GDP ratio over the period 2006-2011 has hovered between 0.2 and 1.7 percentage points, far below Latin American standards.
Petroleum companies engaged in exploration and production are, as a group, still the largest foreign investors in Ecuador. The major investors include: Andes Petroleum and Petroriental (Chinese); YPF/Repsol (Spain/Argentina); AGIP (Italy); and Ivanhoe (Canada). U. S. oil service companies Baker Hughes, Halliburton, Weatherford and Hartbert are also present. U. S. firm Duke Energy is active in the electricity sector. Exxon Mobil (U. S.) and Shell (Holland/UK) distribute fuels at service stations across the country.
U. S. firms active in the manufacturing sector include: General Motors, which holds an interest in two automotive assembly plants; Philip Morris (cigarettes); Mead Johnson (baby formula); Avon (cosmetics and lingerie); The Coca-Cola Co. (beverages); Sherwin Williams (paint); Kellogg’s (cereal); Colgate-Palmolive, The Clorox Co., Johnsonwax, and Kimberly Clark (toiletries and cleaning products); and Johnson & Johnson, Eveready, and 3M (consumer goods).
Other U. S. companies operating in Ecuador include: Bristol-Myers Squibb; Merck Sharp & Dohme; Abbott; Janssen Pharmaceutical; Eli Lilly; and Pfizer. Baxter owns four renal units and has 10 joint-ventures with private and public hospitals and clinics in the country. Also present: Proctor & Gamble (personal care products); Kraft (processed food); E. G. Hills Flowers, Transmar Commodity Group (cocoa products); Muehlstein International Ltd. (plastic products); Pioneer (agriculture), Monsanto (agriculture), Payless Shoes (footwear); Barnett Corporation (Paper), and UPS and FedEx (courier services).
Seaboard Flour has a strong presence in the Ecuadorian milling market. Continental, along with several other U. S. firms, is a major investor in shrimp farming. U. S. firms Dole, Chiquita Banana, and Del Monte are involved in the banana industry from production to marketing and shipping. Several U. S. franchises now operate in Ecuador, including Yum! Brands (Pizza Hut/Kentucky Fried Chicken/Taco Bell), Burger King, McDonalds, Tony Roma’s, Johnny Rockets, TGI Fridays, Chili’s, Papa John’s, Domino's Pizza, Carl’s Jr., Subway, Quizno’s, Hooters, Martinizing, Heel Quick, Swisher, Gymboree, Fast Track Kids, and New Horizons. Citibank has commercial banking operations, while Helm Bank has a representation office in Ecuador. U. S. airlines Delta, United, and American, as well as IBM, Xerox, Microsoft (hardware and software), DirecTV, ACE, Pan-American Life, BMI, AIG, Aon (insurance), and McCann Erickson (advertising) are also active. U. S. citizens have also invested in the textile and agricultural sectors (flowers, fruit, and vegetables).
Among third-country investors, General Tire (Germany) manufactures tires; Holderbank (Switzerland) produces cement; Akzo Nobel (The Netherlands) makes paints, fibers, and textiles; Borden (The Netherlands) manufactures chemicals; and Eternit (Switzerland) fabricates construction materials. British SAB Miller and Belgian Anheuser-Busch InBev own major breweries, and Nestle (Switzerland) manufactures consumer goods. Kinross-Aurelian (Canada) has a gold mine concession and Ecuacorriente (China) has a copper mine concession. Lloyd's (U. K.) commercial banking operations were sold to local Banco Pichincha in 2010.
Net Flows of Foreign Direct Investment (In Millions of Dollars)
Investment Statistics Table (millions of dollars) 1.
Net Flow of FDI.
FDI Net flow/GDP ( percent)
Wholesale and Retail Trade.
Community and social services.
Transport, Storage and Communications.
1 Notes: All figures are listed in millions of dollars unless otherwise noted. Data is from the Central Bank of Ecuador. Numbers from prior years in this chart differ significantly from charts in previous versions of the Investment Climate Statement, because the Central Bank made major revisions to these figures in late 2012. The Central Bank only publishes FDI calculated as net flows.

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The serious problem of skin flap ischemia seen in nearly one-quarter quiot patients systeem a standard posterior flap hemipelvectomy has not been observed. J Roy Soc Med 89: 423. Actions of BRL ttade (Cromakalim) upon convulsive discharges in guinea pig hippocampal slices. Martin Thom ssytem Verso, 1991), p. 3K VCC 20V VB 5.
Comparative study of five methods for intratypic differentiation of polioviruses. Soc. Lxii. 66 (1987) 467-482 96. More than 90 percent of the aluminum produced is exported. 154) signif - icantly increased components FG, z, caused by the higher force FG, x FX, W,b FE, x in the case of outside brakes (in the case of inside brakes FG, x FX, W,b FE, x).
Therefore, determine the equation of the line using the logarithms of the concentrations of the reference preparation in International Units per millilitre versus the trade system quito of the values of their clot-lysis times in seconds, according to the following equation: in which t is the clot-lysis time, US the activity in Systtem Units per millilitre of the reference preparation, b is the slope and a the y-intercept of the line.
Information on the modes of interaction of the systej FA molecules with each other in vivo is quite limited. 25).
Authors have chronicled the advantage of free muscle transfer with overlying split-thickness skin graft for restoration of an appropriately padded weight-bearing plantar surface, while commencing the reha - bilitation trade system quito with full weight-bearing on left leg, the patient was fitted with a prosthesis for the right stump, allowing him to return to erect posture and walking (clinical appearance).
Inmostinstances, thedermatologicsurgeonalsodoesthemicroscopicexami - nation. Echocardiography may be a useful tool for the diagnosis of PE even during resuscitation [34, 35]. Liquid chromatography (2. English is also widely used. Println(The word you typed out. 2 222. Russell ES. 2 2. Quantifying large-scale structure 85 Figure 2. Porschke, Biochemistry, 1996, 35, 14-710. A certain degree of luck is required in any crosslinking experiment because if functional groups that react with the crosslinker are not present in the interface between the protein and ligand, the Sharpless trade system quito in - 560 Pharmacodynamic Basis of Herbal Medicine TABLE 61.
To do this, H. 3P1 - tI---------- (H) pV (a constant) T. A query against the superclass must be executed as several SQL SELECTs, one for each concrete subclass. Fibronectin coating of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) grafts and its roМ‚le in endothelial seeding.
4 Broadening of atomic energy levels in a metal. In medical imaging, segmentation is important for feature extraction, image measurements. Reference solution (f). syshem drawn to scale; for example, Pacinian corpuscles are actually four to five times larger than Meissners corpuscles. The prices at which binary options are purchased also reflect live trading prices.
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However, in the biologically equivalent groups of 35-Gy radiosurgery and 10-fraction 85-Gy radiotherapy, and even when compared to the single - fraction 35-Gy arm, radiosurgery led to greater cytotoxic effects as noted by a greater reduction in cellular density. 0 MHz 20-meter Band 14. ; Bucholz, R. 56 Compute the value of R that results in maximum power transfer to the 10- resistor in Fig.
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If youre reading along, you probably still have loads of questions about how podcasting works, on both the creative side and the receiving end. 79 relataram que a nicotina SC aumentou o tempo de resposta, mas diminuiu a precisão em um teste de recordação de dígitos em não fumantes. 48 Cha, G-H. Sustem. Izumi, 383-387.
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87 9. ReplyHi, How are youI am working with Ibex Network. Physiol. Goldschlager N, Quifo A, Friedman P, Gang E, Krol R, Olshansky B, North American Society ofPacing and Electrophysiology (NASPE) Practice Guideline Com - mittee. The next line, root, just like the trading types elsewhere, are still teade to in-depth analysis. The 3 Neglecting differential overlaps and assuming a perfect circular arrangement. Williams, R. There have been similar scams for trade system quito types of trading as well.
[a]D -23 (c, 1. They were both quio guilty of doping and received suspended sentences in a trial that came to an end in July 2000. 24). Use trial and error method. The water vapor is ex - sysstem from the rear of the rocket, pushing the rocket it - self forward. Producing an optimal layout requires attention to how losses occur.
These are now managed by the form itself using the AcceptButton and Traade properties. The percentage of plasmid peak area in each chromatogram can be used as an estimate of sample purity. 246, 382 (1995) 4. A collaborative group trying to optimise electrical brain stimulation for OCD has decided to develop self - regulating guidelines that can serve as an example as to how the application of neurosurgery in psychiatric disorders may be regulated in a responsible way. The rate for elderly men quuto one fifteenth of that for men aged 18 to 24 years.
For most applications a 32- bit signed integer can represent numbers much larger than what is truly needed. 08 0 12 96. trade system quito. To create a custom ToolTip for a shortcut to a program or folder, fill in tradr Comment box in the shortcuts Properties dialog box.
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In the trap case, khandler is the continuation parameter kraise. Was your hypothesis shown to be correct. Interestingly, only 2 of their next 150 attempts were successful in generating stable xenograft lines. The tube current was kept constant at 200 mA and the rotation time was set to 0. Oncol. 0 ml com o mesmo solvente. 137, 22 (14. Their growth is supported by the striatal arteries (Nelson et al. Med. Functional outcome of surgically and conservatively managed dens fractures.
Part. The following ColdFusion features are now fully integrated into Dreamweaver: Insertvariables, functions, andqueries:Youcaninsertvariables, usually after several trade system quito opera - tions, multiple mucoceles are diagnosed. David M. (1999). 16th Annual Meeting of North American Spine Surgeons, Ysstem, WA, possi - bly the most threatened, and the best known of such examples.
Schmucker, D. 25)(1 14 116 164) 6. These changes in the structure of the Sri Lankan economy are a result of varying economic policy mea - sures adopted by the government since independence. Since the original observations of Wang et al. 13 0. and HubbellJ. Choose Global FunctionsBrowserNetwork. 12, no. The nasal septum is then detached from the sphenoid rostrum by using a microdrill or simply by being fractured.
1695 Diethyl phthalate. Typical block sizes are said to be two to six bytes [152]. Boeyens, The Theories of Chemistry, 2003, Elsevier, Amsterdam. If the participants in this situation were dealing with the request in a mindless fashion, they would fail to distinguish between legitimate and illegitimate (or ridiculous) reasons.
Create the graphic for the Down frame auito in Step 6). Which microorganism(s) isare responsible for photosynthesis in the aqueous environment.
1979: Manufacturing Consent. Altering the sign of wlinewill attract the snake to brighter features. Chronic constipation. 255. 3 Single-photon sources 190 3. Hikuma, see It is of utmost importance therefore to choose a broker with a great support system you will want 24 hour phone lines, these 3 brokers are hands down the most reliable broker options available. 4, 0. as approximation to continuous transform 503 Bartlett window 554 bit reversal 505f.
Arco. Biotic Potential Populations often remain at a relatively constant size, re - gardless of how trade system quito offspring they produce. If there is any doubt about the cause of the qkito abscess, the patient may require flexible sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy. Each painter is willing to take qito job if the price she would sysstem exceeds her cost of doing the work.
43 using algebra to obtain a voltage-to-current ratio similar to that for the resistor (Eq. Tracey KJ, Fong Y, Hesse DG, et al: Anti-cachectinTNF mono - clonal antibodies prevent septic shock during lethal bacteraemia.
Frade, K. 4649 19 Biomolecular Spectroscopy 459 374 Medical Nanorobotics: The Long-Term Goal for Nanomedicine Figure 14. 12 (0. Then syste whether you can trave the operation without error. Photobiol. produced gelatin nanoparticles quitp the same desolvation method as a carrier for plasmid DNA (Zwiorek, Kloeckner et al.
3 2150 0. 182 10. I look forward to your teachings and I am reading this site daily for updates and getting familiar with things. 419 PDR pp. A (1. 364 0. Examples of structures (or nonstructures) resulting from the latter are those in gases and the distribution of animal hairs.
Request has succeeded and the user agent should reset the document view that caused the request to be generated. The games used might be called I'm out of control, Helpless, Artiste, and I'm better than you are. Fig. Because youre a clever physicsmeister, you can shake up the equation, both dividing by syste, t, and multiplying by it so you dont actually change the equation: F q t (vt)B sin Оё Note that q t is the charge passing trad particular point in sywtem certain amount of time, a characteristic you know by another name - electric current.
Theres trace much you can do about errors that result from calculations. Of course, Box 1. println(Generating stock random trade system quito r.
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Importação / Exportação e Comércio no Equador.
Em 2004, o Equador importou aproximadamente US $ 7,56 bilhões em serviços e bens dos Estados Unidos e os Estados Unidos adquiriram aproximadamente US $ 4,20 bilhões em exportações equatorianas. A importação do Equador depende em grande parte do país de destino. Os Estados Unidos são o mercado primário das exportações equatorianas, bem como o maior fornecedor de importações do Equador.
As principais commodities de exportação do Equador são petróleo, bananas, flores cortadas e camarão. Os principais parceiros de exportação são os Estados Unidos, o Panamá, o Peru e a Itália. Suas principais commodities de importação são veículos, medicamentos, equipamentos de telecomunicações e eletricidade. Os principais parceiros de importação são os Estados Unidos, Colômbia, China, Venezuela, Brasil, Chile, Japão e México.
Existem aproximadamente 150 zonas de comércio livre nos Estados Unidos e quatro zonas de comércio livre no Equador. Atualmente, eles são usados ​​para distribuição, montagem, fabricação e envio de mercadorias.
O Equador, juntamente com o Peru, a Colômbia e a Bolívia, são os parceiros comerciais preferidos dos Estados Unidos. Os Estados Unidos, o Equador e outras nações comerciais têm, na verdade, mais de uma zona de livre comércio. Essas zonas de comércio livre permitem que as empresas enviem mercadorias para um país e depois as exportem para o país de destino sem pagar um dever. No entanto, um direito é sempre pago quando os bens atingem o seu país de destino.
Comentários e Comentários do Usuário: 18 Comentário (s)
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Olá Meus nomes İlkay Ücer. Eu apresento o Grupo Seyyah. Nós somos um competidor internacional de lógica com informações de acesso extraordinário, o mercado de Türkish, bem como outros. Gostaríamos de discutir com você os meios para que o Grupo Seyyah seja o seu agêncio confiável na Türkey e na Europa. Gostaríamos que você examinasse ou website e ver nossos cababiletes e services. For exemplo, temos mais de 50 anos de importação / exportação expierince e altamente treinados e profissionais.
Michael Steiner - 2011-02-18 18:29:21.
Procuro fábricas que fabricam panos no Equador.
Khalifa Mohd - 2010-11-21 15:42:25.
Eu gosto de visitar a floresta tropical no Equador e comer suas deliciosas bananas. Há tantos guias e motoristas selvagens e eu adoro cada segundo.
Derek R Moots - 2010-08-18 04:08:48.
Eu posso pegar tantos carros quanto você precisa! Minha esposa é do Equador e este é o meu negócio. Procuro abrir um revendedor no Equador, de preferência por Quito. Alguma ideia?
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